Parasites: Pilferer or Peacemaker

As I stand here just off of Riverside drive gazing across the Tony Tank inlet on a clear and cool autumn afternoon, my feet find themselves sinking into the mud normally underlying tidal waters. A couple hours before or after this moment I may have found myself submerged shin-deep in Maryland’s Wicomico River. But for now the tide has gone out and my kneecaps remain dry.  Around me lies much more than the leafless branches of the eastern shore’s deciduous trees, and the desolate forest floor which looks barren of all but its disintegrating leaf litter. Beneath my sole-sunken heels reside the herbaceous perennial tubers of a hibernating Sagittaria latifolia Willd; or better known as the Broadleaf Arrowhead.

Natural history occurs when you go into the field, and the field not only answers the questions you have brought with you but also asks a few of its own. I never knew exactly what natural history meant before this class. I had only visited the Natural History Museum in DC and that was to see the Hope Diamond. For my project I ultimately decided to study the parasitic relationship between Broadleaf Arrowhead and Dodder. A parasitic relationship is one between two species of plant or animal where one benefits at the expense of the other. In this case the Arrowhead was the host species for the parasitic Dodder. In order to fully understand the relationship between the Broadleaf Arrowhead and the Dodder I had to completely immerse myself into their environment and observe the two participants in the most attentive way possible. Doing so was not easy and took a lot of time and patience. Through my observations and natural history research I found their relationship to be more intricate than the archetypal one of predator versus prey.

My observations took place only a few minutes from Salisbury University across from the Tonytank pond. At first my observations were superficial and not so attentive. I couldn’t seem to see the difference between my observations, and running through the woods and creeks as a kid, climbing old hunter’s posts and waiting for deer to pass by. After a while of observing what most people would take to be the same, unremarkable water day after day under the old bridge, I started to take a closer look. It wasn’t until around my fourth week of observations when I first noticed the bright green foliage of Broadleaf Arrowhead. I was struck by its pointed leaves with two flailing backsides that seemed to hang a little lower causing its tip to poke out into the sky. After further observations I began to conduct some research on the species. This interest sparked more awareness and curiosity about other strange and unidentified species which led to my discovery of the Dodder and the symbiotic relationship between them that I had become so fond of.

The emergent Broadleaf Arrowhead thrives in the freshwater wetlands between New Brunswick and British Columbia, and expands south as far as Florida, California and Mexico. It requires full sun exposure and can withstand 6 to 12 inches of water with a pH ranging from 6.0 to 6.5, but is tolerant of less adequate conditions. The Arum may only grow to be a scrawny 4 feet on average, but don’t be swindled by its physiognomy. The Broadleaf Arrowheads have a remarkable aptitude to extract extraordinary amounts of nutrients and metals from their surroundings due to highly rhizomatous capabilities. Although the herbaceous perennials reach their zenith in July, they continue to burgeon until mid-fall when they annually die back to their root crown. During their dieback, nutrients and carbohydrates are translocated to their subterranean tubers where they are able to dodge the callousness of winter, or even the malicious appetite of a parasitic Dodder.

Cuscuta L; otherwise known as Dodder, is a twining parasitic plant that is vastly interwoven throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the entire world. A Dodder seedling has, on average, a mere 10 days to seek out a suitable host before it perishes. Once the cunning Cuscuta ascertains a host and inaugurates itself, its roots audaciously rot away from the earth. The Dodder is not to be mistaken for your typical liana; a mature plant can live an entire life without attachment to the ground. The consistently counter clockwise spiral branching stems of the dodder range from thread-like filaments to heavy cords. This leafless creeper has a yellowish orange appearance due to the fact that it contains no chlorophyll, and is consequently dependent upon a host for its photosynthetic properties. Only through the Dodder’s haustoria does it procure nutrients. Haustoria are the microscopic arms of the Dodder that meticulously reach into the vascular system of the host plant and enthrall water and sugars.

Initially I thought the Dodder was colonizing the Arrowhead, against which the latter seemed defenseless. I had watched week after week as the Dodder creeped up the sturdy stalks of the arum until it reached its neck. By this point the arrowhead’s broad leaves had begun to change color and lose their vibrant green pigment, as if the plant’s blood flow was being choked out by the Dodder. I helplessly stood by as I watched the Arrowhead’s stems continue to teeter until they finally succumbed to the Cuscuta’s clench. I found myself unexpectedly distraught from what I was seeing, as I became increasingly fascinated with these plants and their intertwined fates. Need the arrowhead die simply because the dodder must feed?  But then I realized that the Dodder was also, almost simultaneously, losing its vivaciousness as the arrowhead succumbed. I realized the arrowhead was never completely threatened, that even though it was involved in a parasitic relationship, checks and balance were in place that functioned for the betterment of the entire tidal water ecosystem.

When most humans think of a parasite, the first thing that usually comes to mind is a dreadful bloodsucking organism that is pictured anthropomorphically as egotistical and unremorseful. It’s exceptionally typical for people to be biophobic of parasites and perceive them simply as the enemy; in doing so we form metaphors for our own social relationships with others that picture the parasite in a deleterious manner. Yet to do so is to hate nature itself.  Surprisingly, parasites make up over half of the worlds organisms, and every living thing on this planet has at least one parasite that lives on or even inside of it. While this thought likely makes most humans cringe, perhaps that reaction should be balanced with admiration for how parasites are responsible for the world’s biodiversity among species, and have even facilitated evolutionary change. Most parasites are not as narcissistic as people make them out to be. They can be as common and innocuous as the bacteria that you find on your own hands and hair. In fact, your body may be at even more risk of environmental harm without the presence of some bacteria and viruses, just like an ecosystem is in the absence of parasites. Their presence can actually be as indispensable as a keystone species at the top of a food chain.

Through my natural history observations and research I have come to the conclusion that parasites hold the same civic responsibility towards their ecosystem as humans do today, and should receive the same appreciation as keystone species do. Just like humans and the biotic upkeep we hold towards the environment we depend upon, parasites have a similar obligation in promoting biodiversity. Although parasites are generally considered to be harmful and many feel biophobic towards them, like keystone species, the eradication of all parasites would not necessarily be beneficial.  Parasites have been thought to be a dominant force, if not the dominant force, in the evolution of life; reducing the dominance of superior competitors and allowing competing species to co-exist. Parasites presence plays an important role in the vitality of our global ecosystems and ought to have the respect they deserve and be regarded not as pilferers, but peacekeepers.

Works Cited

1.     "Biophilia Hypothesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 14 Dec. 2015
<http://www.britannica.com/science/biophilia-hypothesis>.

2.     Davidson, Tish; Frey, Rebecca. "Cuscuta." Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. 14 Dec. 2015 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

3.     "Dodder". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 14 Dec. 2015
<http://www.britannica.com/plant/dodder>.

4.     "Parasitism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 14 Dec. 2015
<http://www.britannica.com/science/parasitism>.

5.     U.S. Department of Agriculture. Natural Resource Conservation Service. DUCK POTATO: Sagittaria Latifolia Willd. Natural Resources Conservation Service, 5 Feb. 2002. Web. 10 Dec. 2015. <http://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_sala2.pdf>.

6.     Zimmer, Carl. "Do Parasites Rule the World?" Discover. Kalmbach Publishing Co., 1 Aug. 2000. Web. 10 Dec. 2015. <http://discovermagazine.com.proxy-su.researchport.umd.edu/2000/aug/cover>.

The Art of a Garden

As I walk from the hard asphalt surface of the parking lot onto the soft grass leading up to the alumni garden, I begin to notice the idyllic state of this place, one where humans have intervened in order to manicure and maintain the natural world. The alumni garden, located right behind the Salisbury Alumni house on Camden Avenue, consists of two, long, rectangular beds surrounded by holly and oak trees.  Various types of native and non-native flora have been planted in the garden, including elephant ears (colocasia esculentas), alpine aster (aster aplinus), chrysanthemums, and others. These plants normally live for a month or two until they are removed and new ones are planted. A fountain is located around a brick platform, with steps on each side. The place echoes of sounds, including the constant splashing of the water flowing out of the fountain, along with the calls of American robins, northern cardinals, and other birds flying around the area. The garden is certainly one that would be considered beautiful, one where weddings, receptions, and ceremonial events of all types might be hosted. Colorful flora has been carefully organized in the beds so that plants are set out in their respective areas, not to touch or impinge upon one another. When I first walked back to this garden I was unsettled by its peculiar form of beauty. It was beautiful, with clear distinct geometrical demarcations. The flora is planted in rows and columns, with no room for life in between. The grass was all cut to be 2-3 inches in height, and all branches and leaves are to be removed from the grass. This garden may appear to be desirable, however, this garden is not an accurate representation of the natural world. This garden is more like a “trophy” garden. 

As I sit on the grass during a calm Fall afternoon, an American robin (Turdus migratorius) flies right overtop of me, immediately grabbing my attention. I proceeded to watch this robin fly around the surrounding area, eventually losing sight as it flew into a nearby holly bush. Curious to see where this robin went, I slowly started to approach the holly bush, looking for any movement within it’s branches. As I reached the tall, wide, and prickly bush, the robin I originally saw dove out of the bush and flew away to another tree. “PEEEEK! tut-tut-tut PEEEEKKK! tut-tut-tut PEEEEK!” I hear, which the female and males use to signal when a potential predator might be near. This is not a call of danger, but rather of awareness (“American”). Since I was not deemed an immediate threat, I sense a feeling of trust between the robin and myself. Instead of continuing to follow the robin, I pushed aside the branches near where the robin exited and looked inside. The inside of the holly bush is fairly open compared to the seemingly impenetrable outside, with hundreds of branches stemming up and down its trunk. As I looked around the inside, I see in the branches what appears to be a clump of sticks and twigs. Moving forward, I carefully pushed away more branches in order to gain a better perspective. Strategically placed far within the holly bush, a robin’s nest sits sturdily on top of the surrounding branches. This nest showcased incredible craftsmanship; with leaves and braches intricately woven into almost a perfect basket, larger twigs provide a base which remind me of the supports to my childhood treehouse, and pine needles are placed delicately on top to provide a soft bedding for the two robin eggs occupying the nest. The different shades of brown, orange, yellow, and black camouflage the nest amongst its surroundings. I can sense the time and effort that went into building this nest. This nest is not just a pile of sticks and branches; this nest is also a home. Although the American robin is a migratory species, this holly bush is the robin’s home for now. After a moment of appreciation, I slowly let back the braches that covered up the nest and sat on the ground behind me. A few minutes later I saw the mother robin return to her nest. I sense the robin feels protected here. I do too.

Gardens are a form of art which serve to connect human beings to their origins, the natural world. Although gardens vary in different forms, they all serve to appreciate the natural world, signifying an important relationship between humans and nature (Butler, 2010). The relationship can be seen though the role of the gardener. The gardeners of the alumni garden are not required to care about the working of the garden in relation to all of the other natural systems around it. The gardener is not required to plant native plants, ensure biodiversity, or ensure habitat for animals. Rather, the gardener is required to keep the garden “maintained”. The lawns have to be trimmed, the beds have to be mulched, the plants cannot be overgrown, the weeds must be removed, edges must be kept, the brick must be swept, and the bushed must be trimmed. This idea of “maintaining” the garden is rather important in understanding the relationship between man and nature being employed here.

In Western civilization, the historical relationship has remained the domination of nature by man. Decartes’ division of reality into distinct and separate spheres of mind and body, and of subject and object, immensely changed the Western worldview’s perception of nature. This division can be seen in Western science, which assumes that the natural world and its processes can be “known”, and in turn predicted. Western culture uses this sense of knowledge in order to manipulate and control the natural world to meet human needs. The Western division of humanity and nature can be seen in the form of a classical garden, such as the alumni garden, which is characterized by distinct geometrical demarcations and clear walkways (“A Classic Garden”). These types of gardens present nature as something that can be managed, controlled, and dominated. In the case of the alumni garden, nature is used to provide aesthetic beauty in a precisely-defined yet idyllic environment.

My time spent in the alumni garden, although relatively short-lived, has given me a glimpse into the processes of life that are at work on the Earth around me. Nature invites us to understand the way that it thrives, to be astonished in wonder, and to be moved by its beauty. The natural systems of our planet invite holistic understanding of the process of life. This cyclical process can never be fully understood or predicted since they are characterized by constant creation and diversity. These natural processes are interconnected, codependent, and collaborative, which all work in junction with one another in order to cultivate life. Every single piece of the alumni garden is important and valuable to understanding the natural world. The holly bush was originally planted to serve as a visible boundary between the alumni garden and the house next door. The intention was not to provide a habitat for animal life, but it did anyway. The natural world has no boundaries, producing life wherever it exists. Gardens should be created in order to appreciate this productivity, emulating the integrity, beauty, and stability that the natural world possesses.

Jake O’Neil

Works Cited:

Butler, R. (2010). Garden Aesthetics. Retrieved from: http://www.stolaf.edu/depts/ciswp/rbutler/Docs/Garden%20Art.pdf

“A Classic Garden”. (2015). Monrovia. Retrieved from: http://www.monrovia.com/design-inspiration/styles/classic/

“American Robin Dictionary of Songs and Sounds”. Journey North. Retrieved from: https://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/robin/Dictionary.html

Discovering Biophilia at Tony Tank Pond

           

              Oak leaves and loblolly pine needles crunch below my feet as I walk down the partially hidden path and emerge beneath an old beech tree, stretching high over the other foliage. Names and pictures are carved into the trunk from memories made here long ago. The ground is slightly angled towards the bank of the pond where the tide has retreated and left muddy roots exposed in its wake. Across the water shiny green lily pads glimmer in the sun, as well as the turtles who poke their heads out of the water to feel the warm rays. It is always calm and peaceful here, with only crickets or the occasional honk of a Canada Goose to be heard. “Biophobia”, which literally translates to a fear of nature, is a hard concept to imagine in a place like this, yet it demands my attention nonetheless as I walk alongside Tony Tank Pond. The concept would likely baffle me more had I not experienced it myself. As a child I was in love with the outdoors, but things changed as I grew older, and I began to waste more and more time inside on the computer. It wasn’t until I moved to New York City where there is such a lack of nature that I began to truly appreciate the natural world. It is nature that releases our stresses and worries of everyday life, and shows us that our problems may not be as big as we think. 

            As Anthony Weston points out in Back To Earth, society has become obsessed with, “the closed circle of human life alone.” (Weston 85) He calls this loss of interest in the more than human world “desolation”. (Weston 85) We have changed the landscape of our country to work to our advantage, and in the process ruined vast swaths of wildlife habitat and driven many species extinct. How can we continue to inhabit this world while turning a blind eye to its well-being? Without appreciation and respect for our environment, it is easy to push its importance to the backburner. This lack of appreciation may be the beginning of the “free rider” complex. With so many people inhabiting the Earth, it is easy for some to benefit from others hard work. For example, if everyone littered the world would be covered in trash. But if most people are responsible with their waste, a few free riders would be able to get away with littering. This example is something I encounter a lot at Tony Tank. Along the path there is always an abundance of trash nestled in the leaves and briars. Coffee cups, soda bottles, cigarette packs, candy wrappers, articles of clothing and old tires. Anything you could imagine tossed carelessly aside, to eventually be washed into the Wicomico River. This could have greater impacts than we originally could have imagined. Currently the world’s largest landfill is located in the Pacific Ocean. This clockwise, slow moving pile of trash known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is twice the size of Texas. Ninety percent of trash in our oceans is plastic, which is unable to biodegrade.  This is incredibly destructive for marine life that mistakes this material for food. Additionally these small pieces of plastic have the ability to soak up toxic chemicals, which is ingested by filter feeders and subsequently makes its way up the food chain (Silverman). Unfortunately the trash we see on the surface, like I encounter along the shores of Tony Tank, may not be the end of our problem. Trash that washes into the water and sinks to the bottom goes unnoticed by humans, but poses the biggest threat to wildlife. An area that may look relatively well kept could have even more problems beneath its waters. In addition to ingesting these items, animals may also become trapped or entangled in them as well.

            This carelessness is not sustainable for the animals and plant life here. The Wicomico River, into which Tony Tank feeds, is already contaminated with excess nutrients, sediments, and toxic contaminates. A toxicity study on the river shows that sediment-poor water from the sewage treatment plant upstream was “very toxic”, which contributed to “slightly toxic” waters downstream, where it crosses with Tony Tank pond (“Toxicity Study”).  Additionally, an article in the Journal of Hazardous Materials from 2005 found that the Wicomico River is considered one of the most polluted rivers in Maryland (“Endocrine Disruptor”). This is based on levels of nutrients, metals, and micro-organisms. Even normal day to day activities can grow to have an impact as big as a sewage treatment plant. The perfect green lawns that surround Tony Tank can leak fertilizer runoff into the waters, as well as fuel from boats. I have consistently noticed a shiny patch of oil runoff during my weekly visits to the pond, right under the bridge. Something as common as driving our cars everyday can even contribute to this habitat destruction. Two of the main toxicants in Wicomico River sediment-poor water were ammonia and heavy metals. One negative side effect from ammonia is soil acidification. When ammonia reaches the surface of the soil it can react with water to create ammonium. It is also able to react with other particulates causing smog, eutrophication, and creates changes in the ecosystem that disrupt the delicate balance of an area (Impacts of Ammonia). Heavy metals on the other hand are known carcinogens and can cause multiple organ damage in humans (Tchounwou, Yedjou, Patlolla, and Sutton).

            I have spent the last two months growing incredibly attached to this body of water. I love the way the tide sneaks in to hide the lily pads from view, and the way the turtles sunbathe near the bridge on bright sunny days. When I drive by and see another person fishing or admiring the view, although it is rare, it always brings a smile to my face to know that we share the same appreciation and respect for this land. It is almost as if we are sharing a secret that others have not yet discovered. I have begun to treat it differently as well. I could no longer walk by and ignore the litter strewn around. It became my responsibility to pick up the trash along the road, in the forest, and along the bank. As I drove by one day on my way to school, I noticed one of the turtles I had spent hours observing crossing the road. A huge ford truck passed me going in the other direction, and I immediately knew I had to pull over to assist this turtle in its crossing. This land had become a part of me, and I couldn’t bear to see it trashed, abused, or its inhabaitants crushed. The more time I spent at Tony Tank Pond, the more my biophobia transformed into a deep respect of the natural world.

            In today’s society, how can we promote biophilia? Biophilia is a term created by Edward O. Wilson in 1984. Wilson defines it as, “the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes.” (Wilson 1) He believes that we are born with an inner desire to associate with nature, and that this affiliation is crucial to mental development. In today’s world of abundant social media, computers, and TV, how can we encourage others to embrace biophilia? It is clear that biophobia can only lead to destruction in the long run. If the free rider manner of living became the norm, who would be there to uphold our values? Who would lead by example, and teach others respect, appreciation, and wonder for the world around us? Fortunately, there seems to be a solution to this complicated concept. As David Orr writes in Earth in Mind, our society is focused on educating the younger generation to become competitive in the global economy. However this will only lead to the destruction of a habitable planet. We must instead strive to educate future generations with a well-rounded and ecologically centered education that will allow them to become educated on, and thus earn appreciation and respect for, the planet. Orr writes, “Biophobia is not ok because it is the foundation for a politics of domination and exploitation.” (Orr 136) We must strive to end this exploitation, beginning with the younger generations.

Natalie Cieri

Works Cited

Gupta, Gian, and Nelum Dorabawila. "Endocrine Disrupter—estradiol—in Chesapeake Bay         Tributaries." Journal of Hazardous Waste, Feb. 2005. Web. 7 Nov. 2015.

Gupta, Gian, and Makesh Karuppiah. "Toxicity Study of a Chesapeake Bay Tributary - Wicomico River." Chemosphere, Mar. 1996. Web. 07 Nov. 2015

"Impacts of Ammonia." Impacts of Ammonia. Colorado State University, 20 June 2008. Web. 25             Nov. 2015.

Orr, David W. Earth in Mind: On Education, Environment, and the Human Prospect.        Washington, DC: Island, 1994. Print.

Silverman, Jacob. "Why Is the World's Biggest Landfill in the Pacific Ocean?" AccessScience         (n.d.): n. pag. 12 Dec. 2013. Web.

Tchounwou, Paul B., Clement G. Yedjou, Anita K. Patlolla, and Dwayne J. Sutton. "Heavy         Metals Toxicity and the Environment." EXS. U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d.     Web. 25 Nov. 2015.

Weston, Anthony. Back to Earth: Tomorrow's Environmentalism. Philadelphia: Temple UP,       1994. Print.

 Wilson, Edward O. Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1984. Print.